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Writer's pictureEdward D. Andrews
Jul 127 min read

How Reliable Are the Ancient Records of the Greek New Testament?

The Original Manuscripts: Autographs


The first and most crucial category of manuscripts (MSS) we must consider are the autographs, the original documents penned by the New Testament authors themselves. Unfortunately, these autographs do not exist today. Some authors, such as Paul, used an amanuensis or secretary to whom they dictated their letters. Romans 16:22 states, “I, Tertius, who wrote this letter, greet you in the Lord.” Similarly, 2 Thessalonians 3:17 reads, “I, Paul, write this greeting in my own hand, which is the distinguishing mark in all my letters. This is how I write.” These references imply that Paul often dictated his letters but added a personal touch with his handwriting at the end. Other examples include 1 Corinthians 16:21, Galatians 6:11, and Colossians 4:18.


Papyrus Manuscripts


The earliest known MSS of the New Testament are made of papyrus. These documents, dating as far back as the second century, provide valuable insights into the early transmission of the text. Papyrus was a common writing material in the ancient world, made from the papyrus plant, which grew abundantly in the Nile Delta. The first modern discovery of papyrus MSS was made in 1778 in the Fayum province of Egypt. These MSS, preserved by the dry climate, include a variety of documents, from personal letters and receipts to literary works and biblical texts.



Papyrus MSS of the New Testament have been primarily found in Egypt. They are designated by the symbol 𝔓 followed by a number, such as 𝔓52, the Rylands fragment of John, which dates to the early second century. Other significant papyri include the Chester Beatty Library collection in Dublin, which contains 𝔓45 (Gospels and Acts), 𝔓46 (Pauline Epistles), and 𝔓47 (Revelation). The Bodmer Library houses 𝔓66 (John), 𝔓72 (Jude and 1 and 2 Peter), and 𝔓74 (Acts and Catholic Epistles). These papyri, though incomplete and often damaged, are invaluable for textual criticism.


Uncial Manuscripts


Uncial manuscripts, written in large, capital letters on parchment, are another significant category of New Testament MSS. While papyrus continued to be used for secular literature until about the seventh century, Christians began using parchment as early as the second century. Parchment, made from animal skins, was more durable than papyrus and became the dominant material for biblical texts by the time of Emperor Constantine in the fourth century.


Notable uncial MSS include Codex Sinaiticus (א, 01), Codex Alexandrinus (A, 02), Codex Vaticanus (B, 03), and Codex Bezae (D, 05). Codex Sinaiticus, dating to around 350 C.E., is one of the most important New Testament MSS. It originally contained both the Old and New Testaments and is now housed in the British Library. Codex Alexandrinus, written in the fifth century, is also in the British Library. Codex Vaticanus, located in the Vatican Library, dates to the mid-fourth century and is considered the most important single MS of the New Testament. Codex Bezae, a fifth-century MS featuring Greek and Latin on facing pages, is in the library of Cambridge University.



The uncial MSS are designated by capital letters, but as the number of known MSS increased, a numerical system prefixed by a zero was adopted. This system allows for easier identification and categorization of these important documents.


Minuscule Manuscripts


Minuscule manuscripts, written in a smaller, more cursive script, began to appear in the ninth century. These MSS are more numerous than the uncials, with nearly 2,900 known to exist. Minuscule MSS are designated by number, such as Cod. 23, Cod. 457, and Cod. 2035. Despite being later copies, some minuscules are highly reliable. Codex 33, for example, is a ninth-century MS that has been dubbed the “Queen of the Cursives” due to its dependable text. Codex 1, a twelfth-century MS, was one of the primary sources used for the first printed Greek New Testament.

Minuscule MSS often feature more ornamentation and decoration than their uncial predecessors, reflecting the artistic styles of the medieval period. They were typically written on parchment, though some later examples are on paper.


Lectionaries


Lectionaries are MSS that contain selected passages from the New Testament arranged for reading in church services. These passages were chosen to be read on specific days of the year, particularly Sundays and feast days. Over 2,400 lectionaries are known, with the earliest dating to the fourth century. Lectionaries are designated by the letter “L” or the abbreviation “Lect.” followed by a number, such as l225 or Lect. 1280.


Lectionaries are significant because they reflect the liturgical practices of the early church and provide evidence for the text of the New Testament used in worship. They also offer insights into the textual variants that were present in different regions and periods.


Ancient Versions


In addition to the Greek MSS, there are ancient translations, or versions, of the New Testament that provide valuable information for textual criticism. These versions include Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Gothic, Armenian, Georgian, and Slavonic translations. The most important Latin version is the Latin Vulgate, completed by Jerome in the late fourth century. The Vulgate became the standard Bible of the Western church and remains the official version of the Roman Catholic Church.

Gothic

The Syriac Peshitto, another significant version, dates to the early fifth century and is still used in Syriac-speaking churches. The Coptic translations, particularly the Sahidic and Bohairic dialects, were made in Egypt and reflect the text of the New Testament as it was read in that region. Other versions, such as the Gothic translation by Bishop Ulfilas and the Armenian translation by Mesrop, further illustrate the wide geographical spread and linguistic diversity of early Christianity.



Patristic Quotations


The writings of the early church fathers, known as patristic writings, provide extensive quotations from the New Testament. These quotations are so numerous that it has been said the entire New Testament could be reconstructed from them alone. The church fathers wrote in Greek, Latin, Syriac, and other languages, and their works span from the second to the fifth centuries and beyond.


Notable Greek fathers include Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, John Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria. Latin fathers such as Tertullian, Jerome, and Augustine also made significant contributions. These quotations help textual critics determine the form of the text that was known and used in various regions and periods.



The Value of Textual Criticism


Textual criticism is essential for understanding and preserving the New Testament text. It involves comparing the various MSS, versions, and patristic quotations to identify and correct errors, trace the history of textual transmission, and establish the most accurate version of the text. This scholarly work ensures that modern readers have access to a reliable and faithful representation of the original writings.


Textual critics use several principles and techniques in their work. External evidence, such as the age and geographical origin of MSS, is considered alongside internal evidence, which includes the style and vocabulary of the author and the context of the passage. Conjectural emendation is used sparingly to propose corrections when the text is corrupt or unclear.


The vast number of MSS and the diversity of textual evidence make the New Testament one of the best-attested ancient texts. Despite the variations among MSS, the core message and teachings of the New Testament have been preserved with remarkable accuracy. Significant textual variants are well-documented, allowing scholars to provide a reliable text for modern translations.



Modern Translations and Variants


Modern translations of the New Testament differ due to several factors. Different translations may be based on different manuscript traditions, such as the Textus Receptus used for the King James Version or the Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece used for many modern translations. Translation philosophy also plays a role, with some versions prioritizing word-for-word accuracy (formal equivalence) and others aiming for thought-for-thought clarity (dynamic equivalence).


Footnotes in modern translations often mention textual variants, indicating where significant differences occur in the manuscript evidence. These notes provide transparency and help readers understand the textual history and the decisions made by translators.



Conclusion


The ancient records of the Greek New Testament, including papyrus and parchment MSS, versions, and patristic quotations, provide a wealth of evidence for the study and preservation of the New Testament text. Textual criticism, a vital scholarly discipline, ensures that the text of the New Testament remains accurate and reliable for modern readers. Through the diligent work of scribes, translators, and textual critics, the New Testament has been faithfully transmitted across the centuries, allowing believers today to read and understand the words written by the apostles and early Christian authors.


About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is the CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books and is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).


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