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How Were Ancient Bible Manuscripts Written?

Writing Materials in Antiquity


Throughout history, people have utilized a variety of materials for writing. Ancient scribes wrote on surfaces as diverse as tree leaves, bark, linen cloth, pottery shards (ostraca), walls, metal, and wax-coated wooden tablets. Each material had its own unique properties and uses, influencing how documents were created and preserved.


Waxed Tablets


Waxed tablets were commonly used in ancient Greece and Rome before the Christian era. These tablets were made by hollowing out a piece of wood and coating it with wax, creating a reusable writing surface. Writing was done with a stylus, a pointed stick, and could be erased by smoothing the wax. These tablets were often used for temporary notes and personal correspondence. In some cases, two tablets were fastened together with leather thongs for legal documents. Luke 1:63 describes Zechariah using a tablet to write his son’s name, likely referring to this type of waxed tablet.


Waxed tablets were an essential part of daily life in ancient times. They were particularly useful for tasks that required frequent updates or temporary records. For example, Roman soldiers used them to keep track of supplies and daily activities. In educational settings, students practiced their writing skills on these erasable surfaces. The use of waxed tablets extended into the Middle Ages, where they were employed by monks and scribes for drafting and note-taking before committing texts to more permanent materials.




Papyrus


For longer texts and more permanent records, ancient authors used papyrus, a material derived from the papyrus plant. Papyrus was the most common writing material in ancient Greece by the fifth century B.C.E. It was affordable, convenient, and suitable for a variety of uses, including literary works, letters, receipts, and business documents.


The papyrus plant, which grew in swampy areas of the Nile River delta and a few other locations, had a triangular stalk that could reach heights of six to twelve feet. To make papyrus sheets, the stalk's outer skin was removed, and the pithy center was cut into thin strips. These strips were laid side by side and another layer was placed crosswise on top. The layers were pressed together, dried, and smoothed to create a writing surface. The word "biblos," derived from the pith of the papyrus plant, is the origin of the terms "bibliography" and "Bible."


Papyrus sheets varied in size and were often pasted together into long rolls for sale. The Gospel of Matthew, for example, would have required a scroll about thirty feet long. The Romans controlled the papyrus trade, and official names were written on the first page of the rolls, known as the "protokollon." Papyrus scrolls, referred to as "biblos" or "biblion," were the standard format for books. Scrolls were typically written on the side with horizontal strips, and they were rolled up for storage and reading.


Papyrus had a profound impact on ancient communication and record-keeping. It enabled the production of longer texts, such as legal documents, literary works, and administrative records. The material's light weight and flexibility made it ideal for creating portable documents. However, papyrus was susceptible to damage from moisture and handling, which limited its longevity. Despite this, many papyrus documents have survived in arid environments like Egypt, providing valuable insights into ancient life and culture.



Parchment and Vellum


Animal skins were another important writing material in antiquity. Tanned leather scrolls, used by Persians, Greeks, and Hebrews, were durable and strong. However, a significant development occurred when skins were treated with quicklime, scraped, dried, and rubbed with chalk and pumice stone to produce a fine writing surface known as vellum or parchment.

Vellum, made from calfskin, and parchment, a term originally used for skins of lesser quality, eventually became the preferred materials for durable writing surfaces. Parchment was easier to write on than papyrus and lasted much longer, leading to its widespread use by the fourth century C.E. for most New Testament manuscripts (MSS).


The transition to parchment had significant implications for the preservation and dissemination of texts. Parchment's durability meant that documents could survive for centuries, even millennia, under the right conditions. This durability also allowed for more elaborate and detailed illustrations and decorations, which became a hallmark of medieval manuscripts. The use of parchment enabled the creation of codices, which were more practical than scrolls for organizing and accessing large texts.


Paper


Paper, invented by the Chinese in A.D. 89, gradually replaced parchment and vellum. Initially made from hemp or flax, paper became known to Arabs in the eighth century and reached Europe by the twelfth century. By the fifteenth century, paper had become the dominant material for books, coinciding with the invention of the printing press.


The adoption of paper revolutionized the production of books and documents. Paper was cheaper and easier to produce than parchment, making it accessible to a broader range of people. This accessibility contributed to the spread of literacy and education. The invention of the printing press further accelerated this process by enabling the mass production of books, which in turn facilitated the dissemination of knowledge and ideas.



Writing Implements


Ancient scribes used various tools for writing, depending on the material. For waxed tablets, they used a stylus with a pointed end for writing and a rounded end for erasing. For papyrus, they used reed pens (kalamos) that were sharpened to a point and slit to hold ink. Quill pens, made from goose feathers, became popular later for writing on parchment.



Ink was made from substances like lampblack and gum dissolved in water or nut galls, producing black or rusty brown writing. Red ink was often used for headings and initials, while other colors, including purple, gold, and silver, were sometimes used for special manuscripts.



The tools and techniques used by scribes played a crucial role in the quality and longevity of manuscripts. A well-crafted pen and high-quality ink ensured clear and legible writing, which was essential for both the scribe's work and the document's future readers. The use of different inks and colors also allowed scribes to highlight important sections of text, making manuscripts more visually appealing and easier to navigate.



Scrolls and Codices


The scroll was the standard format for books in the first century, but it had limitations, such as difficulty in locating specific sections and the inconvenience of handling long texts. The codex, a new book form, emerged as a more practical alternative. Christians quickly adopted the codex for their Scriptures, facilitating easier reference and study.


A codex was made by stacking sheets, folding them together, and sewing them at the fold. This form allowed for quicker access to different parts of the text and eventually replaced scrolls as the standard format for literary works. Early New Testament manuscripts were often written on papyrus codices, with the earliest known fragment dating from 100-150 A.D.

The shift from scrolls to codices had a profound impact on how texts were read and used. Codices allowed for easier navigation and reference, which was particularly important for religious and scholarly texts that required frequent consultation. The codex format also enabled the inclusion of larger works in a single volume, making it more practical for comprehensive study and use.



The Transition to Parchment Codices


By the fourth century, parchment codices had become the primary format for New Testament manuscripts. These codices offered several advantages, including durability and the ability to contain more text. The Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, two of the most famous New Testament manuscripts, originally contained both the Old and New Testaments on parchment.



Due to the durability of parchment, some manuscripts were reused when they were no longer needed. The original text was scraped off, and new text was written on the cleaned surface, creating palimpsests. Over fifty Greek New Testament palimpsests are known today, and modern technology helps scholars read the original texts.


The use of palimpsests illustrates the resourcefulness and practicality of ancient scribes. By reusing parchment, they maximized the utility of their materials and ensured that valuable writing surfaces were not wasted. The ability to recover and study the underlying texts of palimpsests today provides scholars with a unique window into the history of manuscript production and preservation.



Greek Handwriting Styles


Greek manuscripts were written in two main styles: uncial and cursive. Uncial letters, similar to English capital letters, were rounded and adapted for rapid writing. This style was common in literary manuscripts for many centuries. Cursive writing, used for personal and business documents, was quicker to write but less formal.


By the ninth century, a new style called minuscule handwriting emerged. Minuscule was a formal version of cursive, allowing for faster writing and easier readability. This style gradually replaced uncial writing, and by the end of the tenth century, it had become the standard for New Testament manuscripts. Approximately ninety percent of known Greek New Testament manuscripts are written in minuscule.


The development and evolution of handwriting styles reflect broader changes in the practices and needs of scribes and scholars. As the demand for written documents grew, the need for faster and more efficient writing methods became increasingly important. The transition from uncial to minuscule handwriting represents a significant adaptation to these changing conditions.


Manuscript Ornamentation and Sacred Names



Earlier manuscripts had little ornamentation, but later ones often featured decorations, including illuminated initials. A unique feature in manuscripts is the use of nomina sacra, or sacred names, which were abbreviated with the first and last letters of the word and marked with a horizontal line. This practice was used for words like "God" (ΘΣ), "Christ" (ΧΣ), and "Jerusalem" (ΙΛΗΜ).



The use of ornamentation and nomina sacra not only enhanced the visual appeal of manuscripts but also served practical purposes. Ornamentation helped to delineate sections of text, making it easier for readers to navigate and understand the document. Nomina sacra provided a way to denote sacred names with reverence while also conserving space on the page.



The Evolution of the Codex


The adoption of the codex format revolutionized the way texts were written, stored, and accessed. Unlike scrolls, codices could be opened to any page, making them more user-friendly for reference and study. This format was particularly advantageous for the early Christian communities, who needed to cross-reference texts and study multiple passages efficiently.


Early Christians were instrumental in popularizing the codex. The practical advantages of this format for organizing and accessing the Scriptures contributed to its rapid adoption and eventual dominance over the scroll. The codex allowed for the inclusion of multiple texts within a single volume, facilitating comprehensive study and the compilation of biblical canon.



Preservation and Transmission of Manuscripts


The preservation of ancient manuscripts depended heavily on the materials and methods used by scribes. Papyrus, while widely used, was vulnerable to damage from moisture and handling. Parchment and vellum, on the other hand, were more durable and could withstand the test of time better, especially in favorable conditions.


The careful work of scribes ensured that manuscripts were copied accurately and preserved for future generations. This meticulous process involved not only the physical act of copying but also the implementation of various systems to prevent and correct errors. The use of margin notes, cross-references, and standard abbreviations helped maintain the integrity of the text.


The role of scribes in preserving and transmitting ancient texts cannot be overstated. Their dedication and attention to detail were crucial in ensuring the accuracy and longevity of the manuscripts. This commitment to preserving the written word allowed for the transmission of knowledge and culture across generations and geographical boundaries.



Technological Advances in Manuscript Production


Over time, technological advancements and changes in writing practices influenced the production and preservation of manuscripts. The invention of paper and the development of new writing tools and techniques facilitated more efficient and widespread production of texts.


The printing press, invented in the fifteenth century, marked a significant turning point in the history of manuscript production. It enabled the mass production of books, making them more accessible and affordable. This technological leap contributed to the spread of literacy and education, ultimately transforming the cultural and intellectual landscape of Europe and beyond.



The impact of the printing press on manuscript production and dissemination was profound. It democratized access to information and knowledge, breaking down barriers to learning and fostering intellectual growth. The transition from handwritten manuscripts to printed books represents one of the most significant developments in the history of written communication.



Manuscripts and Modern Scholarship


Ancient manuscripts continue to be invaluable resources for modern scholarship. They provide critical insights into the history, culture, and religious practices of ancient civilizations. Scholars study these texts to reconstruct historical events, understand linguistic developments, and explore the transmission of religious and literary traditions.


The field of textual criticism involves analyzing manuscripts to identify and correct errors, trace the history of textual transmission, and establish the most accurate versions of ancient texts. This scholarly work is essential for producing reliable editions of historical and religious documents, including the Bible.


Textual criticism and the study of ancient manuscripts are fundamental to our understanding of the past. These disciplines enable scholars to piece together the history of written texts and the cultures that produced them. By examining the physical characteristics, content, and context of manuscripts, researchers can gain a deeper appreciation of the complexities and nuances of ancient written traditions.



Conclusion


Ancient manuscripts were written using a variety of materials and techniques, reflecting the technological and cultural contexts of their times. The transition from papyrus scrolls to parchment codices and eventually to paper books marks significant developments in the history of writing and bookmaking. Understanding these processes helps us appreciate the meticulous work of ancient scribes and the enduring legacy of their efforts in preserving important texts.


About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is the CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books and is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).


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