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The Historical Existence of Moses

The figure of Moses stands as one of the most pivotal characters in the entire Bible, serving as the leader who brought the Israelites out of Egyptian bondage and the mediator through whom Jehovah gave the Law. The question of whether Moses was a historical figure or merely a mythological construct has been the subject of much debate, particularly in modern academic circles. However, a thorough examination of biblical and extra-biblical evidence, coupled with a proper understanding of the ancient Near Eastern context, supports the historicity of Moses.


The biblical narrative, primarily found in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible), presents Moses as a real person who was born during a time of great oppression for the Israelites in Egypt (Exodus 1:22–2:10). His birth and early life, his confrontation with Pharaoh, and his leadership during the Exodus are all described with a level of detail that suggests historical authenticity. The historical setting of Moses' life, particularly the 15th century B.C.E. during the reign of Amenhotep II, aligns with the events described in the biblical account.


Critics often argue that the lack of direct archaeological evidence for Moses or the Exodus undermines the biblical account. However, the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. The transient nature of the Israelite encampments in the wilderness and the common practice of not documenting humiliating defeats in ancient records (such as Egypt’s loss of an entire army) explain why such evidence might be scant. The historical context, along with the literary and theological richness of the Exodus account, provides a strong case for Moses being a historical figure rather than a myth.



The Literary and Theological Role of Moses


Moses' role in the Pentateuch is not merely that of a historical leader but also as a literary and theological figure through whom Jehovah revealed His covenant to Israel. The Law, given through Moses, forms the foundation of the Israelite identity and their relationship with Jehovah (Exodus 20:1-17; Deuteronomy 5:1-22). This covenant relationship is a central theme throughout the Old Testament and is often referred to as the "Law of Moses" (Joshua 8:31; Malachi 4:4).


The detailed laws and instructions given through Moses are consistent with the socio-political structures of the ancient Near East. The parallels between the Mosaic Law and other ancient law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, have led some to argue that the Mosaic Law was merely a derivative. However, the distinct theological and ethical principles found in the Mosaic Law, particularly its monotheism and emphasis on holiness, set it apart from other contemporary legal codes. This suggests that while Moses operated within the cultural context of his time, the laws he conveyed were divinely inspired and uniquely shaped by Jehovah’s covenant with Israel.


The theological significance of Moses is further emphasized in the New Testament, where he is frequently referenced as a prophet and lawgiver (Matthew 8:4; Luke 16:29). Jesus Himself acknowledged the authority of Moses when He said, "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them" (Matthew 5:17). This underscores the enduring relevance of the Mosaic Law in the context of the new covenant.



The Archaeological and Extra-Biblical Evidence


The archaeological evidence supporting the historicity of Moses and the Exodus is a topic of much debate. While direct evidence of Moses has not been uncovered, several discoveries corroborate the biblical account of the Israelites' presence in Egypt and their subsequent departure. For example, the discovery of the Merneptah Stele, dated to the late 13th century B.C.E., provides the earliest extra-biblical reference to Israel as a people group in Canaan. This aligns with the biblical timeline of the Exodus and subsequent conquest of Canaan under Joshua (Numbers 13:1-2; Joshua 6:20-21).


Additionally, the geographical descriptions of the wilderness journey in the book of Exodus correspond with known locations and routes in the Sinai Peninsula. The mention of places like Pi-Hahiroth, Marah, and Elim (Exodus 14:2; 15:23, 27) indicates a level of geographical accuracy that would be difficult to fabricate without first-hand knowledge.


Furthermore, the tradition of Moses as a prophet and lawgiver is well-attested in various ancient Jewish writings, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the writings of Josephus. These sources, while written centuries after Moses, reflect a consistent tradition that views him as a historical figure who played a central role in the formation of Israel’s national identity.



The Significance of Moses in Redemptive History


Moses is not only a central figure in the history of Israel but also in the broader narrative of redemptive history. His life and ministry foreshadow the ultimate redemption that would come through Jesus Christ. In Deuteronomy 18:15, Moses prophesied that Jehovah would raise up a prophet like him from among the Israelites, a prophecy that the New Testament writers understood to be fulfilled in Jesus (Acts 3:22-23).


The parallels between Moses and Jesus are numerous. Both were born under the threat of death from a ruling king (Exodus 1:22; Matthew 2:16), both performed signs and wonders as evidence of their divine mission (Exodus 7:3; John 2:11), and both served as mediators of a covenant between God and His people (Exodus 24:7-8; Hebrews 9:15). However, while Moses was a servant in God’s house, Jesus is the Son who is over God’s house (Hebrews 3:5-6). This comparison highlights the continuity between the old covenant, mediated by Moses, and the new covenant, established by Jesus.


The significance of Moses in redemptive history also lies in his role as a type of Christ, though not in a typological sense that implies allegory, but rather in the sense that his life and ministry prefigure the work of Christ. This is seen in the Passover, where the blood of the lamb spared the Israelites from death, pointing forward to the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world (John 1:29). The deliverance of Israel from Egypt under Moses’ leadership is a foreshadowing of the greater deliverance from sin and death accomplished by Jesus.



The Legacy of Moses in Jewish and Christian Thought


Moses' influence extends far beyond his role in the biblical narrative. In Jewish thought, he is revered as the greatest of the prophets and the teacher of the Law. His name is synonymous with the Torah, which is often referred to as "the Law of Moses" (Malachi 4:4). The Jewish people have long held Moses in the highest esteem, viewing him as the ideal leader and the primary figure through whom Jehovah communicated His will.


In Christian thought, Moses is recognized as a foundational figure who laid the groundwork for the coming of Christ. The Law given through Moses reveals the holiness of God and the sinfulness of man, thus pointing to the need for a Savior. The apostle Paul speaks of the Law as a "schoolmaster" to bring us to Christ (Galatians 3:24). While Christians are not under the Mosaic Law, the principles and moral teachings found in the Law remain relevant, as they reflect the character of Jehovah.


Moses’ role as a prophet is also significant in Christian theology. The prophecy of Deuteronomy 18:15 is seen as a direct prediction of Christ, who, like Moses, would speak the words of Jehovah and lead His people into a new covenant relationship. The New Testament writers consistently present Moses as a figure who, though honored and revered, ultimately points beyond himself to Jesus, who is greater than Moses in every respect (Hebrews 3:3).


The enduring legacy of Moses in both Jewish and Christian thought is a testament to his historical reality and the profound impact he had on the development of monotheism and ethical monotheism. His life and teachings continue to influence religious thought and practice to this day, further affirming his significance as a historical figure.



The Critique of the Mythological View


The view that Moses is a mythological figure rather than a historical person has been advanced by some modern scholars, particularly those influenced by the Documentary Hypothesis. This theory, which suggests that the Pentateuch was composed of multiple sources written centuries after the events it describes, has led some to question the historicity of Moses. However, this view is based on several flawed assumptions and misunderstandings of ancient literary practices.


Firstly, the Documentary Hypothesis relies heavily on the idea that different names for God (JHVH and Elohim) indicate different sources. However, this ignores the ancient Near Eastern practice of using multiple names for deities to emphasize different aspects of their character. The use of different names for God in the Pentateuch is consistent with this practice and does not necessitate multiple authors.


Secondly, the theory assumes that the Pentateuch was written long after the events it describes, during the time of the Babylonian exile or later. However, this assumption overlooks the internal evidence within the Pentateuch itself, which contains detailed descriptions of ancient customs, geography, and legal practices that would have been unfamiliar to later writers. The consistent use of Egyptian loanwords and the accurate depiction of Egyptian culture suggest that the author of the Pentateuch had direct knowledge of these elements, supporting the traditional view that Moses himself wrote these books (Exodus 24:4; Deuteronomy 31:9, 24).


Moreover, the claim that Moses is a mythological figure fails to account for the strong tradition of Moses as a historical person in both Jewish and Christian history. The ancient Israelites and early Christians believed in the historicity of Moses, as evidenced by their writings and practices. The consistent portrayal of Moses as a real person across different genres of biblical literature, from historical narrative to legal texts to poetry, further supports his historicity.


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Conclusion: A Historical Figure of Lasting Importance


The question of whether Moses was a man or a myth is not merely an academic exercise but has significant implications for our understanding of the Bible and its message. The evidence, both biblical and extra-biblical, overwhelmingly supports the view that Moses was a historical figure who played a crucial role in the formation of Israel as a nation and in the unfolding of God’s redemptive plan. The narratives, laws, and prophecies associated with Moses are not the inventions of later writers but are rooted in real historical events and divine revelation.


Moses’ impact on religious thought, his central role in the narrative of redemption, and the enduring legacy of his teachings all point to the reality of his existence. While modern critics may continue to question the historicity of Moses, the biblical record and the testimony of history affirm that Moses was indeed a man chosen by Jehovah to lead His people and to reveal His will to them.


About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).


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