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Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?

The Formative Years of Christianity: Laying the Foundation


The first four centuries of Christianity are crucial to understanding the development of the faith, much like the early years of a child's life, which are essential in shaping their personality. These formative years were a time when foundational beliefs, practices, and organizational structures were established, which would influence the trajectory of the Christian faith for centuries to come. However, this period also saw the seeds of division and apostasy being sown, leading to the proliferation of denominations we see today.


Jesus Christ himself highlighted the importance of choosing the right path when he said, "Enter through the narrow gate; for the gate is wide and the way is broad that leads to destruction, and there are many who enter through it. For the gate is small and the way is narrow that leads to life, and there are few who find it" (Matthew 7:13-14). This teaching underscores the challenge faced by early Christians: to remain faithful to the uncompromising teachings of Christ or to compromise with the surrounding world.


As Christianity began to spread, believers were faced with two choices: to adhere strictly to the teachings of Christ and the Scriptures or to adapt and compromise with the prevailing cultural and philosophical influences of the time. The history of the first 400 years of Christianity reveals which path the majority ultimately chose, leading to the rise of various denominations and sects.



The Influence of Pagan Philosophy on Early Christianity


One of the significant challenges faced by early Christianity was the influence of pagan philosophy. Historian Will Durant explains that the early Church adopted several religious customs and forms from pre-Christian pagan Rome, such as the use of incense, holy water, and the veneration of saints. These practices were not originally part of the Christian faith but were introduced as the Church sought to appeal to the broader Roman population.


Durant notes that the Church began to resemble the Roman state in its organization and practices: "Soon the bishops, rather than the Roman prefects, would be the source of order and the seat of power in the cities." This gradual adoption of pagan practices and hierarchical structures marked the beginning of a significant departure from the original teachings and organization of the early Christian congregation.


The incorporation of these elements into Christian worship was not merely a matter of adopting new customs; it represented a shift in the very foundation of the faith. The early Christians were faced with the temptation to conform to the surrounding culture, and in many cases, they succumbed to this temptation. This compromise with pagan philosophy and practices laid the groundwork for the divisions and sects that would later emerge.



The Great Apostasy: A Foreseen Deviation


The apostle Paul, writing around 60-61 C.E., emphasized the unity of the Christian faith when he declared, "One Lord, one faith" (Ephesians 4:5). At that time, there was only one Christian faith, characterized by a unified body of believers. However, today we see a vast array of denominations, sects, and cults, each claiming to be Christian yet teaching conflicting doctrines and holding to different standards of conduct. This situation is a far cry from the unity of the first-century Christian congregation.


The roots of these divisions can be traced back to the first century C.E. From the very beginning, Satan, the Adversary, sought to undermine the Christian faith. Initially, he used external persecution to try to silence the testimony of the early Christians, but when this strategy failed, he turned to a more insidious tactic: corrupting the faith from within.


The concept of apostasy, or religious defection, is central to understanding the development of Christian denominations. The Greek term "apostasia" (ἀποστασία) refers to a falling away or rebellion, particularly in a religious context. The New Testament writers, including Jesus and the apostles, warned of the coming apostasy and the emergence of false teachers within the Christian congregation.


Jesus himself cautioned his followers to "be on the watch for the false prophets that come to you in sheep’s covering" (Matthew 7:15). He knew that Satan would attempt to corrupt his followers by introducing false teachings and divisions from within the congregation. The apostle Paul echoed this warning in his farewell address to the overseers of Ephesus, stating that "from among you yourselves men will rise and speak twisted things to draw away the disciples after them" (Acts 20:29-30).


The apostle Peter also foretold the rise of false teachers who would "who will secretly introduce destructive heresies"[1] and "exploit you with false words" (2 Peter 2:1, 3). These warnings were not in vain, as internal opposition and divisive thinking began to surface within the Christian congregation even before the end of the first century.


[1] Heresy: (αἵρεσις hairesis) Heresy literally means “a choice or an option.” A destructive choice or option of a school of thought or a teaching of a false religious sect, faction, or a teacher. Heresy is a doctrinal view or position that is accepted by a so-called “Christian” group(s), sect(s), or teacher(s) that is unbiblical, i.e., a false teaching, erroneous doctrine that is foreign to what the Bible authors meant by the words that they used. These unbiblical views or positions were not merely indifferent or harmless but were destructive to the faith.—2 Peter 2:1.



The Early Signs of Apostasy: Deviations Within the First Century


The apostle Paul, writing to the Thessalonians around 51 C.E., indicated that the efforts of Satan to cause division and lead people away from the true faith were "already at work" (2 Thessalonians 2:7). This early sign of apostasy is evident in various instances recorded in the New Testament.


For example, in Acts 15:1, 5, some within the Christian congregation were advocating that Gentile Christians needed to be circumcised and observe the Mosaic Law. This issue caused significant controversy and required the intervention of the governing body of the apostles and elders in Jerusalem to resolve the matter. While the decision was made to not impose such requirements on Gentile believers, this incident illustrates how divergent views and practices were already taking root within the Christian community.


Another example of early apostasy can be found in the church at Corinth, where some members were denying the resurrection of the dead, a core Christian doctrine (1 Corinthians 15:12). This rejection of fundamental Christian teachings demonstrates how quickly false doctrines could spread within the congregation.


By the time the apostle John wrote his letters around 98 C.E., he had noted the presence of "many antichrists" who denied that "Jesus is the Christ" and that Jesus is the Son of God who came "in the flesh" (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:2-3). These early heresies were a clear indication that the apostasy foretold by Jesus and the apostles was already taking hold within the Christian community.


The apostles acted as a restraint against the full development of apostasy during their lifetimes, but with the death of the last surviving apostle, John, around 100 C.E., the stage was set for the apostasy to spread unchecked. The organizational and doctrinal deviations that had begun to take root would soon flourish, leading to significant changes in the structure and beliefs of the Christian faith.



The Emergence of the Clergy-Laity Distinction


One of the most significant organizational changes that occurred as a result of the apostasy was the emergence of a distinct clergy class separate from the laity. In the early Christian congregation, there was no such distinction. Jesus had instructed his disciples, "All you are brothers," emphasizing the equality of all believers (Matthew 23:8). The leadership of the early church was characterized by a body of overseers, or elders, who shared equal authority and responsibility for the congregation (Acts 20:17; Philippians 1:1; 1 Peter 5:2-3).


However, as the apostasy unfolded, this egalitarian structure began to change. By the early second century, a separation between the terms "overseer" (Greek: ἐπίσκοπος, episkopos) and "elder" (Greek: πρεσβύτερος, presbyteros) emerged, with the overseer (or bishop) assuming a position of greater authority over the elders. Ignatius of Antioch, writing around 110 C.E., advocated for the leadership of a single bishop over each congregation, a significant departure from the earlier model of shared oversight.


Augustus Neander, in his work The History of the Christian Religion and Church, During the Three First Centuries, explains that this shift resulted in the establishment of a hierarchical structure within the church, with the bishop at the top. Over time, this led to the development of a clergy class distinct from the laity, with the clergy being recognized as the only legitimate priesthood.


This distinction between clergy and laity was further solidified by the third century, as Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, championed the authority of bishops as a separate and superior class within the church. This hierarchical system marked a significant deviation from the original structure of the Christian congregation and contributed to the growing divide between the leaders of the church and the general body of believers.



The Infiltration of Pagan Teachings: Corrupting Christ's Pure Doctrine


Another significant consequence of the apostasy was the infiltration of pagan teachings into the Christian faith. Jesus' teachings, as recorded in the Scriptures, were clear and unambiguous. He taught that Jehovah is "the only true God" and that the human soul is mortal (John 17:3; Matthew 10:28). However, with the death of the apostles and the weakening of the original organizational structure, these teachings were gradually corrupted as pagan doctrines began to infiltrate the church.


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A key factor in this corruption was the influence of Greek philosophy. As Christians who were trained in Greek philosophy sought to express their faith in terms that would appeal to educated pagans, they began to incorporate elements of pagan thought into Christian doctrine. This blending of Greek philosophy with Christian teaching led to the introduction of doctrines such as hellfire (eternal torment of the soul) and the immortality of the soul, which were not part of the original Christian faith.


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These pagan doctrines did not originate with the Greeks but were borrowed from older cultures, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. As these teachings became more deeply entrenched in the Christian faith, other Scriptural doctrines were also distorted or abandoned.


For example, the clear Christian teaching regarding the resurrection and the hope of Christ's Kingdom was gradually overshadowed by the belief in the immortality of the soul. This shift in doctrine led to a diminished expectation of Christ's return and the coming of his Kingdom, as believers were taught to focus on an afterlife in heaven rather than the establishment of God's Kingdom on earth.



The Decline of the Kingdom Hope: Shifting Expectations


In the early Christian congregation, there was a strong emphasis on watching for the return of Jesus Christ and the establishment of his Kingdom. Jesus' disciples were well aware of the need to remain vigilant and to keep separate from the world in anticipation of Christ's return (James 1:27; 4:4; 5:7-8; 1 Peter 4:7). However, as the apostasy took hold, this expectation began to fade.


The doctrine of the immortality of the soul, borrowed from Greek philosophy, played a significant role in this shift. As believers came to accept the idea that the soul survives the body at death and immediately ascends to heaven, the millennial hope of Christ's Kingdom ruling over the earth was gradually abandoned. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology explains that this shift resulted in the belief that the blessings of Christ's Millennial Reign were related to the spirit realm rather than to a restored earth.


This doctrinal shift was further compounded by the institutionalization of the church and its integration with the state. By the time of Augustine of Hippo (354-430 C.E.), the church had come to view itself as the Kingdom of Christ on earth. Augustine's influential work, The City of God, promoted the idea that "the Church even now is the kingdom of Christ, and the kingdom of heaven." This belief effectively transferred the Kingdom from heaven to earth, with the institutional church being seen as its earthly manifestation.


The integration of the church with the state, which began in earnest with the conversion of Emperor Constantine and the subsequent legal recognition of Christianity, marked the final stage in this doctrinal shift. The church, now closely aligned with the political powers of the time, no longer emphasized the imminent return of Christ or the establishment of his Kingdom. Instead, the focus shifted to maintaining and expanding the church's earthly power and influence.



The Reformation: A Partial Return to True Worship?


The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century represented a significant challenge to the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church and its hierarchical structure. Reformers such as Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, and John Calvin sought to address various abuses within the church, including the sale of indulgences, clerical celibacy, and the veneration of Mary. However, while the Reformation brought about important changes, it did not mark a complete return to the true worship and doctrine of the early Christian congregation.


One of the key achievements of the Reformation was the translation of the Bible into the languages of the common people, making the Scriptures more accessible to the general population. This led to increased Bible study and a deeper understanding of Christian doctrine among the laity. However, despite these positive developments, the effects of the apostasy were deeply entrenched in the foundations of some forthcoming Christian denominations, and many of the unscriptural doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church were carried over into many of the Protestant churches.


For example, the Protestant churches retained the basic division between clergy and laity, as well as doctrines such as hellfire (eternal torment of the soul after death), the immortality of the soul, and infant baptism. Moreover, the Protestant churches, like their Catholic counterparts, remained closely aligned with the political powers of the time, further distancing themselves from the teachings of Jesus and the early Christian congregation.



Stirrings of Watchfulness: A Renewed Focus on Christ's Return


Despite the continued influence of apostate teachings, the 19th century saw a renewed focus on the return of Jesus Christ and the establishment of his Kingdom. This period of religious revival was marked by increased Bible study and a reexamination of key Christian doctrines, including the nature of the soul, the resurrection, and hellfire.


However, the challenges of this period were not limited to doctrinal disputes. The rise of atheism, particularly in the wake of Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto and Charles Darwin's Origin of Species, posed a significant threat to the faith of many believers. The industrial revolution also brought about rapid changes in society, leading to a shift in focus from spiritual matters to material and technological advancements.


In this environment, the stage was set for the emergence of new religious movements and the further fragmentation of the Christian faith. While some of these movements sought to return to the teachings of the early Christian congregation, others introduced new interpretations and doctrines, further contributing to the proliferation of denominations.



The Obstacle of Higher Criticism (Biblical Criticism, Literary Criticism)


During the 18th and 19th centuries, higher criticism of the Bible began to gain significant traction, especially in the latter half of the 19th century. One of the leading figures in this movement was the German Bible critic Julius Wellhausen. Wellhausen popularized the idea that the first six books of the Bible, including Joshua, were not written until the fifth century B.C.E., which would be about a thousand years after the events they describe. He did acknowledge, however, that some of the material in these books had been written down earlier. This theory was featured in the Encyclopædia Britannica, published, which stated: "Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a post-exilic priestly source (P) and non-priestly earlier sources which differ markedly from P in language, style, and religious standpoint."


Wellhausen and his followers viewed the historical accounts in the earlier parts of the Hebrew Scriptures not as literal history but as popular traditions or myths of the past. For instance, they claimed that the story of the enmity between Jacob and Esau wasn’t an actual historical event but rather a reflection of the later conflict between the nations of Israel and Edom.



In line with this thinking, these critics also argued that Moses never received any command to make the Ark of the Covenant and that the tabernacle, which was central to Israelite worship in the wilderness, never existed. They believed that the authority of the Aaronic priesthood was not fully established until shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, which they dated to the beginning of the sixth century B.C.E.


But what evidence did they have to support these claims? Higher critics assert that they can separate the text of the early books of the Bible into several different documents. One of their basic principles is to assume that, generally, any Bible verse using the Hebrew word for God (’Elohim) was written by one author, while any verse that uses the name Jehovah must have been written by another—as if one writer could not have used both terms.


Similarly, they argue that if an event is described more than once in a book, this must be proof of more than one author, despite the fact that ancient Semitic literature often included repetition. Additionally, they claim that any change in writing style signals a change in authorship, even though it's well-known that modern writers often vary their style depending on their stage in life or the subject matter they’re dealing with.



Is there any solid proof for these theories? Not really. One scholar pointed out that "Criticism, even at its best, is speculative and tentative, something always liable to be modified or proved wrong and having to be replaced by something else. It is an intellectual exercise, subject to all the doubts and guesses which are inseparable from such exercises." When it comes to higher criticism of the Bible, this speculation and uncertainty are especially extreme.


Gleason L. Archer, Jr., pointed out another significant flaw in the reasoning of higher critics. The Wellhausen school, he noted, started with the assumption—an assumption they rarely even attempted to prove—that Israel’s religion was merely human in origin, like any other, and should be explained as a product of evolution. In other words, Wellhausen and his followers began with the belief that the Bible was nothing more than the work of men, and then they built their arguments from that starting point.


Even as far back as 1909, The Jewish Encyclopedia identified two more weaknesses in Wellhausen’s theory: First, the assumption that religious rituals become more elaborate over time is not supported by evidence from primitive cultures. Second, the idea that older sources must necessarily deal with earlier stages of ritual development doesn’t hold up when compared to other ritual codes, like those of India.


Is there any way to test the validity of higher criticism? The Jewish Encyclopedia suggested that Wellhausen’s views were based almost entirely on literary analysis and needed to be supplemented by archaeological evidence. But as archaeology developed over the years, it tended to confirm the historical reliability of even the oldest periods described in the Bible, casting doubt on the higher critics' claims that the accounts in the Pentateuch were merely reflections of a later period.


So why, despite its weaknesses, has higher criticism remained popular among intellectuals? The answer lies in the fact that it tells them what they want to hear. One 19th-century scholar admitted, “Personally, I welcomed this book of Wellhausen’s more than almost any other; for the pressing problem of the history of the Old Testament appeared to me to be at last solved in a manner consonant to the principle of human evolution which I am compelled to apply to the history of all religion.” In other words, higher criticism fit neatly with his evolutionary beliefs. Indeed, the two theories serve similar purposes: Just as evolution eliminates the need for a Creator, Wellhausen’s higher criticism suggests that one need not believe the Bible is inspired by God.


In our rationalistic 20th century, the assumption that the Bible is merely human in origin may seem plausible to some intellectuals. It’s much easier for them to believe that prophecies were written after the fact than to accept them as genuine predictions. They prefer to dismiss the Bible's accounts of miracles as myths, legends, or folktales rather than consider the possibility that these events really happened. However, this viewpoint is rooted in prejudice and offers no substantial reason to reject the Bible as true. Higher criticism is seriously flawed, and its attempts to discredit the Bible have failed to prove that it is not the Word of God.


Archaeology, in contrast, is a far more reliable field of study. Through their work, archaeologists have often provided evidence that aligns with what we read in the Bible, sometimes even vindicating the Bible against its critics.



Conclusion: The Continuing Challenge of Apostasy


The history of Christianity's first 400 years and the subsequent centuries of doctrinal and organizational development highlights the ongoing challenge of apostasy. From the early infiltration of pagan philosophy and practices to the rise of a distinct clergy class and the distortion of key Christian doctrines, the Christian faith has faced numerous challenges to its purity and unity.


Despite the efforts of reformers and revivalists, the effects of apostasy continue to be felt in the form of the many denominations, sects, and cults that claim to be Christian today. These divisions, while often rooted in genuine attempts to understand and live out the teachings of Jesus, are also a reminder of the importance of remaining vigilant and faithful to the true teachings of Christ and the Scriptures.


As Christians, it is essential to continually examine our beliefs and practices in light of the Scriptures and to seek the guidance of the Holy Spirit in discerning truth from error. In doing so, we can remain on the narrow path that leads to life and avoid the broad road of compromise and apostasy.



About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220 books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).


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